PARTICIPATORY ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE AND DISASTER RISK AMONG PASTORAL COMMUNITIES OF AFRICA- A CASE STUDY OF KAJIADO COUNTY, KENYA
Abstract
Purpose of the Study: The main aim of this study was to assess past and present climate impacts from communities’ points of view and establish community-led adaptation strategies and a roadmap for pastoralists in Kajiado County using an innovative participatory tool for climate resilience building.
Statement of the Problem: While climate-induced impacts continue to affect poor rural pastoral communities and their livelihoods, these communities are rarely involved in developing locally led adaptation roadmaps that reflect their realities. The opportunities that lie in community-led programs have never been fully explored by the scientific community, despite the promise that participatory techniques hold in climate resilience building at the grassroots level.
Methodology: This study employed an innovative participatory assessment of climate and disaster risk (PACDR) methodology to assess climate impacts among the Maasai community of Kajiado County, Kenya. Specifically, the study used ten PACDR tools to engage the community through focus group discussions formed along six gender groups, with cumulative participation of about 120 community members.
Results: The study established that communities still prefer their own indigenous/traditional strategies for combating climate change, such as migration, despite the challenges that some practices may pose on the environment. In addition, the study discovered an increased sense of ownership when communities are involved through participatory approaches in developing their own adaptation strategies, based on their perspectives and what works for them in line with their prevailing social, cultural, and environmental conditions.
Recommendation: This paper recommends the use of the innovative PACDR in future community climate risk assessments among ASAL (Arid and Semi-Arid Lands) communities in East Africa.
Keywords: Participatory, Climate Risk, Assessment, Vulnerability, Community
References
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Achola, J. Y. (2021). Assessing Sustainability of Pastoralism Under a Changing Climate in Kajiado County, Kenya [Thesis, University of Nairobi]. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/155950
Adger, W. N., Brown, I., & Surminski, S. (2018). Advances in risk assessment for climate change adaptation policy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2121), 20180106.
Aithira, N. M., & Kathula, D. N. (2020). Ramifications of climate change on pastoralism in Kajiado south sub-county. African Journal of Emerging Issues, 2(6), 1-20.
Amwata, D. A. (2013). The influence of climate variability and change on land-use and livelihoods in Kenya’s southern rangelands [PhD Thesis]. http://repository.mut.ac.ke
Ayugi, B., Tan, G., Rouyun, N., Zeyao, D., Ojara, M., Mumo, L., Babaousmail, H. and Ongoma, V., 2020. Characterization of meteorological drought and pluvial scenarios over Kenya, East Africa.
Bachmair S, Tanguy M, Hannaford J and Stahl K 2018 How well do meteorological indicators represent agricultural and forest drought across Europe? Environ. Res. Lett. 13 034042
Bobadoye, A. O., Ogara, W. O., Ouma, G. O., & Onono, J. O. (2014). Comparative analysis of rainfall trends in different sub counties in Kajiado County Kenya.
Bohle, H. G. (2007). Living with vulnerability: livelihoods and human security in risky environments. UNU-EHS.
Chelang’a, J. K., & Chesire, C. M. (2020). Analysis of Conflict Resolution Strategies among Pastoralist Communities of Kenya. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(4), 4–21. https://www.academia.edu/
Füssel, H.M. and Klein, R.J.T. (2006), 'Climate change vulnerability assessments: an evolution of conceptual thinking', Climatic Change, 75 (3), 301-29.
Gikaba, J. M., Muthoni, K. S., & Bebe, B. O. (2014). Influence of drought duration on livestock feeding practices by Maasai pastoralists in Kajiado County, Kenya. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 8(1), 225. https://search.proquest.com/openview/1002a4ffc2ed577486dd64ef47a04fb2/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2031961
Imana, C. A., & Zenda, M. (2023). Impact of climate change on sustainable pastoral livelihoods in Loima Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 51(1), 13-33.
IPCC (2019): Annex I: Glossary. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/11/11_Annex-I-Glossary.pdf
Kaoga, J. O., Olago, D., Ouma, G., Ouma, G., & Onono, J. (2021). Appraisal of Land Use Transformation using Remote Sensing in Kajiado County, Kenya. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 47(2), 115. https://www.nieindia.org/Journal/index.php/ijees/article/view/2074
Kaoga, J., Ouma, G., Olago, D., & Ouma, G. (2018). The Shrinking Grazing Fields of the Maasai Land Under the Changing Climate System in Kajiado County, Kenya. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 9(14), 6. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234648457.pdf
KDEAP. (2009). Kajiado District Environmental Action plan (2009-2013). National Environment Management Authority. Retrieved at https://www.nema.go.ke/images/Docs/Awarness%20Materials/NEAPS/kajiado.pdf on April 8th 2024.
Keller, M., & Künzler, M. (2014). Participatory Assessment of Climate and Disaster Risks (PACDR). Berna, Switzerland: Brot für alle–Pain pour le prochain.
Kemboi, E., Agwata, J. F., & Anyango, S. O. (2018). Institutional Impact on Pastoral Community Resilience to Drought in Kajiado County, Kenya. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN, 7(9), 348-354.
Kisangau, P. D., Kimiti, J. M., Mburu, M. W. K., & Snelder, D. J. (2021). Factors influencing use of multipurpose trees and shrubs in arid and semiarid lands of Kenya. Rangeland Ecology & Management, 74, 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rama.2020.10.002
Kyejo, L. E. (2007). The Impact of Economic Reforms on the Maasai Pastoralists of Tanzania: The Case of Migrant Youths [Master thesis, Universitetet i Tromsø]. https://munin.uit.no/handle/10037/13161
Labudov´a L, Labuda M and Tak´aˇc J 2017 Comparison of spi and spei applicability for drought impact assessment on crop production in the Danubian lowland and the east Slovakian Lowland Theor. Appl. Climatol. 128 491–506. .
Lankester, F., & Davis, A. (2016). Pastoralism and wildlife: Historical and current perspectives in the East African rangelands of Kenya and Tanzania. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 35(2), 473–484. https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/133710/
Larsen, T. A., Hoffmann, S., Lüthi, C., Truffer, B., & Maurer, M. (2016). Emerging solutions to the water challenges of an urbanizing world. Science, 352(6288), 928–933. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad8641
Leal Filho, W., Nzengya, D., Muasya, G., Chemuliti, J., & Kalungu, J. W. (2017). Climate change responses among the Maasai Community in Kenya. Climatic Change, 145(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-2087-9
Lyon, B., & Vigaud, N. (2017). Unraveling East Africa's climate paradox. Climate extremes: Patterns and mechanisms, 265-281.
Maiti, S., Jha, S. K., Garai, S., Nag, A., Chakravarty, R., Kadian, K.S., & Upadhayay, R. C. (2014). Adapting to climate change: Traditional coping mechanism followed by the Brokpa pastoral nomads of Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Mekuyie, M., & Mulu, D. (2021). Perception of Impacts of Climate Variability on Pastoralists and Their Adaptation/Coping Strategies in Fentale District of Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research, 10(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-020-00212-2
MoALF. (2018). Climate Risk Profile for Kajiado County. Kenya County Climate Risk Profile Series. The Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF), Nairobi, Kenya. https://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/publications/climate-risk-profile-kajiado-county-kenya-county-climate-risk-profile
Muchiri, F. M. (2015). Analysis of the resource based conflict between the pastoralist and agrarian communities in east African region: a case study of Naivasha sub-county in Kenya (Doctoral dissertation).
Mudekhere, S. M., Mugalavai, E. M., & Nabiswa, F. M. (2023). Indigenous knowledge factors influencing farmers’ uptake of climate change adaptation strategies in Kajiado County, Kenya. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 14(7), 2244–2259. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2023.025.
Mutsotso, R. B., Sichangi, A. W., & Makokha, G. O. (2018). Spatio-temporal drought characterization in Kenya from 1987 to 2016.
Ndiritu, S. W. (2019). Chapter 17 - Drought preparedness and livestock management strategies by pastoralists in semi-arid lands: Laikipia North, Kenya. In E. Mapedza, D. Tsegai,
M. Bruntrup, & R. Mcleman (Eds.), Current Directions in Water Scarcity Research (Vol. 2, pp. 247–263). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814820-4.00017-1
Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Henku, A., Mabhuye, E., Malik, N., & Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country situation assessment. http://hdl.handle.net/10625/58566
Nthiwa, D., Alonso, S., Odongo, D., Kenya, E., & Bett, B. (2019). A participatory epidemiological study of major cattle diseases amongst Maasai pastoralists living in wildlife-livestock interfaces in Maasai Mara, Kenya. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51, 1097-1103.
Nunow, A., Muthama, N., Ininda, J., & Kinama, J. (2019). Comparative Analysis of The Role of Gender in Climate Change Adaptation Between Kajiado And Kiambu County, Kenya. Journal of Climate Change and Sustainability, 28–37. https://doi.org/10.20987/jccs.3.03.2019
Nyariki, D. M., & Amwata, D. A. (2019). The value of pastoralism in Kenya: Application of total economic value approach. Pastoralism, 9(1), 1–13.
Ohle, H.G. (2001). Vulnerability and criticality: perspectives from social geography. Newsletter of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental
Change (IHDP) Update (2/2001; Heidelberg, Germany: South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg), 3–5.
O'malley, P. (2010). Resilient subjects: Uncertainty, warfare and liberalism. Economy and Society, 39(4), 488-509.
Omolo, N., & Mafongoya, P. L. (2019). Gender, social capital and adaptive capacity to climate variability: A case of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 11(5), 744–758. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2018-0009/full/html
Participatory assessment of climate and disaster risk (PACDR). A Tool for Integrating Climate and Disaster Risks into Community Planning and Development. Version 10. Retrieved at: https://pacdr.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/23_1218_PACDR-v.10.pdf. Accessed on 9th April 2023.
Seter, H., Theisen, O. M., & Schilling, J. (2018). All about water and land? Resource-related conflicts in East and West Africa revisited. GeoJournal, 83(1), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-016-9762-7
Sharp, J., & Twati, L. (2017). Documentation of Maasai culture. UNESCO Dar Es Salaam. http://www.maasaipartners.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/documentation_of_maasai_culture.pdf
Smith, A. B. (2021). Pastoralism in Africa. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.1066
Tariq, H., Pathirage, C., & Fernando, T. (2021). Measuring community disaster resilience at local levels: An adaptable resilience framework. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 62, 102358.
Tefera, A. S., Ayoade, J. O., & Bello, N. J. (2019). Comparative analyses of SPI and SPEI as drought assessment tools in Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia. SN Applied Sciences, 1, 1-14.
Umborg, S., Tefera, S., Munslow, B., & Mor, S. M. (2021). Examining local perspectives on the influence of climate change on the health of Hamer pastoralists and their livestock in Ethiopia. Pastoralism, 11(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-021-00191-8
Umo, L., Yu, J., & Fang, K. (2018). Assessing Impacts of Seasonal Climate Variability on Maize Yield in Kenya. International Journal of Plant Production, 12(4), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-018-0027-x
van der Geest, K., de Sherbinin, A., Kienberger, S., Zommers, Z., Sitati, A., Roberts, E., and James, R. (2019). The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and resulting losses and damages to people and society. In Loss and Damage from Climate Change, R. Mechler, L. Bouwer, T. Schinko, S. Surminski, and L.-B. J, eds. (Springer), pp. 221–236. 20. Leonard, M., Westra
Wafula, W. M., Wasonga, O. V., Koech, O. K., & Kibet, S. (2022). Factors influencing migration and settlement of pastoralists in Nairobi City, Kenya. Pastoralism, 12(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-021-00204-6
Wang, Y., Wang, J., Li, S., & Qin, D. (2014). Vulnerability of the Tibetan pastoral systems to climate and global change. Ecology and Society, 19(4).
Achola, J. Y. (2021). Assessing Sustainability of Pastoralism Under a Changing Climate in Kajiado County, Kenya [Thesis, University of Nairobi]. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/155950
Adger, W. N., Brown, I., & Surminski, S. (2018). Advances in risk assessment for climate change adaptation policy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2121), 20180106.
Aithira, N. M., & Kathula, D. N. (2020). Ramifications of climate change on pastoralism in Kajiado south sub-county. African Journal of Emerging Issues, 2(6), 1-20.
Amwata, D. A. (2013). The influence of climate variability and change on land-use and livelihoods in Kenya’s southern rangelands [PhD Thesis]. http://repository.mut.ac.ke
Ayugi, B., Tan, G., Rouyun, N., Zeyao, D., Ojara, M., Mumo, L., Babaousmail, H. and Ongoma, V., 2020. Characterization of meteorological drought and pluvial scenarios over Kenya, East Africa.
Bachmair S, Tanguy M, Hannaford J and Stahl K 2018 How well do meteorological indicators represent agricultural and forest drought across Europe? Environ. Res. Lett. 13 034042
Bobadoye, A. O., Ogara, W. O., Ouma, G. O., & Onono, J. O. (2014). Comparative analysis of rainfall trends in different sub counties in Kajiado County Kenya.
Bohle, H. G. (2007). Living with vulnerability: livelihoods and human security in risky environments. UNU-EHS.
Chelang’a, J. K., & Chesire, C. M. (2020). Analysis of Conflict Resolution Strategies among Pastoralist Communities of Kenya. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(4), 4–21. https://www.academia.edu/
Füssel, H.M. and Klein, R.J.T. (2006), 'Climate change vulnerability assessments: an evolution of conceptual thinking', Climatic Change, 75 (3), 301-29.
Gikaba, J. M., Muthoni, K. S., & Bebe, B. O. (2014). Influence of drought duration on livestock feeding practices by Maasai pastoralists in Kajiado County, Kenya. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 8(1), 225. https://search.proquest.com/openview/1002a4ffc2ed577486dd64ef47a04fb2/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2031961
Imana, C. A., & Zenda, M. (2023). Impact of climate change on sustainable pastoral livelihoods in Loima Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 51(1), 13-33.
IPCC (2019): Annex I: Glossary. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/11/11_Annex-I-Glossary.pdf
Kaoga, J. O., Olago, D., Ouma, G., Ouma, G., & Onono, J. (2021). Appraisal of Land Use Transformation using Remote Sensing in Kajiado County, Kenya. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 47(2), 115. https://www.nieindia.org/Journal/index.php/ijees/article/view/2074
Kaoga, J., Ouma, G., Olago, D., & Ouma, G. (2018). The Shrinking Grazing Fields of the Maasai Land Under the Changing Climate System in Kajiado County, Kenya. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 9(14), 6. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234648457.pdf
KDEAP. (2009). Kajiado District Environmental Action plan (2009-2013). National Environment Management Authority. Retrieved at https://www.nema.go.ke/images/Docs/Awarness%20Materials/NEAPS/kajiado.pdf on April 8th 2024.
Keller, M., & Künzler, M. (2014). Participatory Assessment of Climate and Disaster Risks (PACDR). Berna, Switzerland: Brot für alle–Pain pour le prochain.
Kemboi, E., Agwata, J. F., & Anyango, S. O. (2018). Institutional Impact on Pastoral Community Resilience to Drought in Kajiado County, Kenya. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN, 7(9), 348-354.
Kisangau, P. D., Kimiti, J. M., Mburu, M. W. K., & Snelder, D. J. (2021). Factors influencing use of multipurpose trees and shrubs in arid and semiarid lands of Kenya. Rangeland Ecology & Management, 74, 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rama.2020.10.002
Kyejo, L. E. (2007). The Impact of Economic Reforms on the Maasai Pastoralists of Tanzania: The Case of Migrant Youths [Master thesis, Universitetet i Tromsø]. https://munin.uit.no/handle/10037/13161
Labudov´a L, Labuda M and Tak´aˇc J 2017 Comparison of spi and spei applicability for drought impact assessment on crop production in the Danubian lowland and the east Slovakian Lowland Theor. Appl. Climatol. 128 491–506. .
Lankester, F., & Davis, A. (2016). Pastoralism and wildlife: Historical and current perspectives in the East African rangelands of Kenya and Tanzania. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 35(2), 473–484. https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/133710/
Larsen, T. A., Hoffmann, S., Lüthi, C., Truffer, B., & Maurer, M. (2016). Emerging solutions to the water challenges of an urbanizing world. Science, 352(6288), 928–933. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad8641
Leal Filho, W., Nzengya, D., Muasya, G., Chemuliti, J., & Kalungu, J. W. (2017). Climate change responses among the Maasai Community in Kenya. Climatic Change, 145(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-017-2087-9
Lyon, B., & Vigaud, N. (2017). Unraveling East Africa's climate paradox. Climate extremes: Patterns and mechanisms, 265-281.
Maiti, S., Jha, S. K., Garai, S., Nag, A., Chakravarty, R., Kadian, K.S., & Upadhayay, R. C. (2014). Adapting to climate change: Traditional coping mechanism followed by the Brokpa pastoral nomads of Arunachal Pradesh, India.
Mekuyie, M., & Mulu, D. (2021). Perception of Impacts of Climate Variability on Pastoralists and Their Adaptation/Coping Strategies in Fentale District of Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Environmental Systems Research, 10(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-020-00212-2
MoALF. (2018). Climate Risk Profile for Kajiado County. Kenya County Climate Risk Profile Series. The Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF), Nairobi, Kenya. https://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/publications/climate-risk-profile-kajiado-county-kenya-county-climate-risk-profile
Muchiri, F. M. (2015). Analysis of the resource based conflict between the pastoralist and agrarian communities in east African region: a case study of Naivasha sub-county in Kenya (Doctoral dissertation).
Mudekhere, S. M., Mugalavai, E. M., & Nabiswa, F. M. (2023). Indigenous knowledge factors influencing farmers’ uptake of climate change adaptation strategies in Kajiado County, Kenya. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 14(7), 2244–2259. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2023.025.
Mutsotso, R. B., Sichangi, A. W., & Makokha, G. O. (2018). Spatio-temporal drought characterization in Kenya from 1987 to 2016.
Ndiritu, S. W. (2019). Chapter 17 - Drought preparedness and livestock management strategies by pastoralists in semi-arid lands: Laikipia North, Kenya. In E. Mapedza, D. Tsegai,
M. Bruntrup, & R. Mcleman (Eds.), Current Directions in Water Scarcity Research (Vol. 2, pp. 247–263). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814820-4.00017-1
Njoka, J. T., Yanda, P., Maganga, F., Liwenga, E., Kateka, A., Henku, A., Mabhuye, E., Malik, N., & Bavo, C. (2016). Kenya: Country situation assessment. http://hdl.handle.net/10625/58566
Nthiwa, D., Alonso, S., Odongo, D., Kenya, E., & Bett, B. (2019). A participatory epidemiological study of major cattle diseases amongst Maasai pastoralists living in wildlife-livestock interfaces in Maasai Mara, Kenya. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51, 1097-1103.
Nunow, A., Muthama, N., Ininda, J., & Kinama, J. (2019). Comparative Analysis of The Role of Gender in Climate Change Adaptation Between Kajiado And Kiambu County, Kenya. Journal of Climate Change and Sustainability, 28–37. https://doi.org/10.20987/jccs.3.03.2019
Nyariki, D. M., & Amwata, D. A. (2019). The value of pastoralism in Kenya: Application of total economic value approach. Pastoralism, 9(1), 1–13.
Ohle, H.G. (2001). Vulnerability and criticality: perspectives from social geography. Newsletter of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental
Change (IHDP) Update (2/2001; Heidelberg, Germany: South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg), 3–5.
O'malley, P. (2010). Resilient subjects: Uncertainty, warfare and liberalism. Economy and Society, 39(4), 488-509.
Omolo, N., & Mafongoya, P. L. (2019). Gender, social capital and adaptive capacity to climate variability: A case of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 11(5), 744–758. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2018-0009/full/html
Participatory assessment of climate and disaster risk (PACDR). A Tool for Integrating Climate and Disaster Risks into Community Planning and Development. Version 10. Retrieved at: https://pacdr.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/23_1218_PACDR-v.10.pdf. Accessed on 9th April 2023.
Seter, H., Theisen, O. M., & Schilling, J. (2018). All about water and land? Resource-related conflicts in East and West Africa revisited. GeoJournal, 83(1), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-016-9762-7
Sharp, J., & Twati, L. (2017). Documentation of Maasai culture. UNESCO Dar Es Salaam. http://www.maasaipartners.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/documentation_of_maasai_culture.pdf
Smith, A. B. (2021). Pastoralism in Africa. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.1066
Tariq, H., Pathirage, C., & Fernando, T. (2021). Measuring community disaster resilience at local levels: An adaptable resilience framework. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 62, 102358.
Tefera, A. S., Ayoade, J. O., & Bello, N. J. (2019). Comparative analyses of SPI and SPEI as drought assessment tools in Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia. SN Applied Sciences, 1, 1-14.
Umborg, S., Tefera, S., Munslow, B., & Mor, S. M. (2021). Examining local perspectives on the influence of climate change on the health of Hamer pastoralists and their livestock in Ethiopia. Pastoralism, 11(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-021-00191-8
Umo, L., Yu, J., & Fang, K. (2018). Assessing Impacts of Seasonal Climate Variability on Maize Yield in Kenya. International Journal of Plant Production, 12(4), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-018-0027-x
van der Geest, K., de Sherbinin, A., Kienberger, S., Zommers, Z., Sitati, A., Roberts, E., and James, R. (2019). The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and resulting losses and damages to people and society. In Loss and Damage from Climate Change, R. Mechler, L. Bouwer, T. Schinko, S. Surminski, and L.-B. J, eds. (Springer), pp. 221–236. 20. Leonard, M., Westra
Wafula, W. M., Wasonga, O. V., Koech, O. K., & Kibet, S. (2022). Factors influencing migration and settlement of pastoralists in Nairobi City, Kenya. Pastoralism, 12(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-021-00204-6
Wang, Y., Wang, J., Li, S., & Qin, D. (2014). Vulnerability of the Tibetan pastoral systems to climate and global change. Ecology and Society, 19(4).
Published
2024-07-15
How to Cite
Ouko, O. C. (2024). PARTICIPATORY ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE AND DISASTER RISK AMONG PASTORAL COMMUNITIES OF AFRICA- A CASE STUDY OF KAJIADO COUNTY, KENYA. African Journal of Emerging Issues, 6(12), 53 - 76. Retrieved from https://ajoeijournals.org/sys/index.php/ajoei/article/view/647
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